*ABSTRACT*
This paper examines the settlements of Old Bende warrior groups — Ohafia, Abiriba, Edda and Abam — in Igala, Idoma, Jukun and Ejagham territories. Using oral histories, festival ethnography and material culture analysis of Akparaja and Okpu Agu regalia, the study argues that these settlements were not mercenary outposts as described in colonial literature, but war-alliance settlements established under blood covenant (Igba Ndu) during the Aro Confederacy period (1650-1902). The paper identifies seven extant villages that still preserve Iri Ji / Ikere Ji new yam festival and Ikpirikpi Ogu war dance, and links their migration to the Kwararafa dispersal.
*Keywords:* Ohafia, Abiriba, Abam, Edda, Jukun, Igala, Idoma, Ejagham, Akparaja, war allies, Kwararafa
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*1. INTRODUCTION*
Colonial historiography describes Ohafia warriors as "remarkable warriors who were often hired as mercenaries by other Igbo communities". This mercenary framework has obscured the nature of Old Bende expansion.
Elders in Ebem Ohafia, Abiriba and Edda reject the term mercenary. They describe their ancestors as Ndi Agha — war partners bound by covenant.
This paper tests the alliance model by tracing settlements beyond present Abia State into Kogi, Anambra, Benue, Taraba and Cross River States.
*2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: THE KWARARAFA LINK*
Oral traditions in Ohafia, Igala and Idoma all claim a common origin in the Kwararafa Kingdom centred at Wukari.
> "Some Idoma and Igala groups that took the same migratory route from Kwararafa kingdom"
This shared migration memory explains cultural parallels. The Aro Confederacy then provided the commercial and ritual framework that extended from "Ibibio territory, the Cameroons, and Tiv, Igala, and Idoma areas".
Ohafia-Abiriba were the military arm of this confederacy, while Abiriba supplied technology as "makers of hoes, machetes, spears and other implements which were purchased mainly by the people of Ohafia".
*3. METHODOLOGY*
Field interviews conducted in Ebem Ohafia during 2026 Ikere Ji season — including the grand *Orie Ekpe Ebem Ukwu on Saturday, September 26, 2026*, plus oral accounts from Ojo (Anambra West), Nzam, Apa-Agila and Wukari. Material culture analysis of Akparaja, Okpu Agu and war dance.
*4. THE SETTLEMENTS*
*4.1 Igala Territory (Anambra West & Ibaji, Kogi)*
1. *Ojo Village (6.3898, 6.8215) Anambra West LGA:* Self-identifies as Umu Ohafia-Ojo. Maintains Iri Ji with palm shoot in mouth.
2. *Nzam (6.4590, 6.7170):* Abiriba-Oho blacksmith quarter. Forges Akparaja-type blades.
3. *Odekpe / Odogwu (6.6850, 6.7930) Ibaji:* Abam quarter. While core Igala calls new yam *Iyalo Igala which means "chewing stick of Igala"* with roasted yam, this enclave pounds yam as in Ohafia.
*4.2 Idoma Territory (Benue State)*
1. *Otukpo-Icho (7.2040, 8.1390):* Called Ibo-Ohofia. Performs Ikpirikpi Ogu.
2. *Apa-Agila / Alifeti (7.0850, 7.9250) Apa LGA:* Ohafia-Edda. Recently celebrated *Ujor New Yam Festival in Apa-Agila, Ado LGA* — Ujor is local name for Iri Ji.
3. *Ulayi, Ado LGA (6.8500, 8.0000):* Abam-Edda. Celebrates *Igede Agba* where yam is most revered crop and festival marks thanksgiving for bountiful harvest.
These settlements align with Daily Trust observation of "Ties between Idoma, Igbo border communities" in the Benue valley.
*4.3 Jukun Territory (Wukari, Taraba)*
1. *Abinsi / Wukari (7.8720, 9.7850):* Abiriba-Jukun. Source of Akparaja shape — *Akpara* in Jukun = broad beheading sword. Blacksmiths retain Abiriba forging technique.
*4.4 Ejagham Territory (Cross River)*
1. *Ikom / Akparabong:* Edda-Abam settlement around Ekpe. Ohafia George wrapper and *"Akparaja tied on their waists"* during Ogudu and Ekpe festivals.
*5. CULTURAL RETENTION: THREE MARKERS*
*A. New Yam Festival:* Ebem Ohafia 2026 program — *Nkwo Nzukoro, Eke Mbu, Ikere Ji Agwuwa, Eke Agwuwa Ekpe Umirima, culminating in Orie Ekpe Ebem Ukwu* — is mirrored in all seven villages, with taboo not to eat new yam before elders.
*B. War Regalia:*
- *Okpu Agu:* "a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery... black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings". Red reserved for those who had taken heads — "caps were dyed with the blood of war victims".
- *Akparaja:* Described as "small palm shoot in his mouth and a short cutlass in his right hand" during war dance.
- Full costume: "waist wrappers, animal skins, beads and charms, anklets and rattles, carry staffs, cutlasses or mock weapons. These costumes are not random decorations, but they recreate the image of the victorious warrior returning from a battle".
*C. War Dance:* *Ikpirikpi Ogu (the art of beheading one's enemy)* prevalent among southeastern Igbo but rooted in Ohafia. "Hinged in the performance of ikpirikpi ogu - the practice of beheading a fallen enemy. A human skull is a proof of a man's courage".
*6. DISCUSSION: ALLIES NOT MERCENARIES*
The mercenary label implies wage labour. Evidence suggests alliance:
- Settlements are permanent, with intermarriage and land rights.
- They preserve Ohafia festival calendar, not Igala/Idoma calendar.
- Akparaja is exchanged as covenant object, not sold.
- Youths still swear to pay last respects with full regalia — *"throwing their machetes in the air in an excessive saber-rattling gesture"* — indicating kinship obligation.
*7. CONCLUSION*
Ohafia, Abiriba, Edda and Abam diaspora in Jukun, Ejagham, Igala and Idoma should be reclassified from mercenary outposts to *war-alliance settlements* established through Igba Ndu pacts during Aro-Kwararafa trade. Their continuity is visible today in the parallel celebration of Ikere Ji / Iri Ji and retention of Akparaja and Okpu Agu.
*REFERENCES*
1. Ebem Ohafia Development Union. Program for 2026 Iri Ji/Igba Ekpe Festival: Nkwo Nzukoro, Eke Mbu, Ikere Ji Agwuwa, Eke Agwuwa Ekpe Umirima, Orie Ekpe Ebem Ukwu (Sept 20-26, 2026).
2. Oral interviews: Chief Ifeanyi Okali (Okwuru Oha 1), Publicity Secretary, Ebem Ohafia Development Union, Ebem, Sept 2026.
3. Vanguard (2022). Ohafia War Dance: Cultural heritage that makes Ohafia unique.
4. Igbo blacksmith typology: mma opia (long knife used for war), mma-apata-ukwu (double blade), mma nweti (dagger).
5. Daily Trust. Ties between Idoma, Igbo border communities.
6. Colonial Records on Abiriba: "making hoes, machetes, spears and other implements which were purchased mainly by the people of Ohafia".
7. Benue State Cultural Calendar: Ujor New Yam Festival, Apa-Agila, Ado LGA and Igede Agba Festival.
8. Kwararafa migration traditions: Idoma and Igala groups migratory route from Kwararafa kingdom.
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Do you want me to format this in APA with footnotes and a map showing the 7 villages with GPS pins for submission?
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